Biocatalysis, bioprocessing & biotransformations involve the use of enzymes (often immobilized) and/or microorganisms (often immobilized whole cells) to perform chemical conversions. The enzymes are not reagents, but rather catalysis (biocatalysts performing highly focused biotransformations, but not consumed in the reaction). However, like all catalysts, there are stability issues that must be addressed for the biocatalytic process for it to be commercially sensible. Many synthetic organic chemists would like enzymes to be simple off-the-shelf catalysts that can be used painlessly to perform desired organic transformations. Applied biotransformations & biocatalysis are becoming more and more prevalent in the synthesis of fine chemicals & pharmaceuticals, as an efficient replacement for certain key reaction steps. Most important are pharmaceutical applications. There, the use of enzymes to catalyze stereospecific & regiospecific organic reactions is incredibly valuable due to potentially high degrees of selectivity and yield effected by enzymes. Another tremendous benefit is that the formation of side products can be significantly lessened.

The term biocatalyst can refer to enzymes in various forms which are pure enzymes crude enzymes, immobilised enzymes, whole cell, immobilised whole cell, catalytic antibodies, designer enzymes and recently cross-linked enzyme crystals. The employment of enzymes and whole cells have been important for many industries especially for centuries in the food & drink businesses where the production of wine, beer & cheese is dependent on the effects of the microorganisms. Biocatalysis has wide applications to produce fine chemicals, especially for the pharmaceutical industry. The biggest advance in biotransformation operation has to be recombinant DNA technology. Not only is it possible to over express particular genes but it is also possible to express them in another organism, or to create unique catalysts. For example, a plasmid containing genes over expressing trehalase has been inserted into Escherichia coli. The enzyme accumulated in the periplasm of the Escherichia coli and this made it easy to extract it by osmotic shock . It is now anticipated that within a few years more than half the world's enzymes will be produced commercially using recombinant DNA technology.

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids (eg. retinoids and steroids). Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or hydrophobic ('water-fearing'), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or hydrophilic ('water-loving') and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).For microbiology and food research sphingosines, ceramides, gangliosides, phosphatidyl inositol phosphates were used.

Microparticles are particles between 0.1 and 100 ?m in size. Commercially available microparticles include those made of glass, latex, polystyrene, various metals (carbon, silver, copper, etc.), and various magnetic materials. Microparticles have been found to have widespread applications in medicine, biochemistry, colloid chemistry, and aerosol research. Uses include chromatographic separation media, supports for immobilized enzymes, and spacers in liquid crystal displays Monodisperse melamine resin particles are a new class of polymer particles with excellent physical and chemical properties. Polystyrene nano- and microspheres particles are typically used for calibration purposes and immunoassays (latex agglutination test, FACS). Many of the tests are based on non-covalent binding of specific antibodies, antigens or cells to the hydrophobic particle surface. Covalent attachment of proteins to surface modified particles is possible .

Monoglycerides are amphiphatic neutral lipid molecules in which a hydrophobic fatty acid is attached via an ester bond. Despite their relatively simple chemical structure, monoglycerides can form various phases found in membrane phospholipid/water systems, namely the coagel or lamellar crystalline (Lc) phase, the lamellar gel (L) phase, the lamellar liquid-crystalline (L) phase, bicontinuous cubic phases of different symmetry, the inverted hexagonal (HII) phase, and the inverted micellar (L2) phase. The lipid organization in monoglyceride-water systems is strongly dependent on the chemical structure of the monoglyceride and on environmental conditions such as temperature, water, and salt content.The ability of monoglyceride/water systems to form different structures offers many interesting opportunities for studies on membrane structure and function, as well as for industrial applications. Being a natural emulsifier, monoglycerides are widely used in the food industry.. During fat digestion the enzymatic hydrolysis of triglycerides leads to accumulation of a large amount of monoglycerides, which may result in formation of a bicontinuous cubic phase. .

The simplest type of carbohydrate is a monosaccharide, which among other properties contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, mostly in a ratio of 1:2:1 . Glucose, one of the most important carbohydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. So is fructose, the sugar that gives fruits their sweet taste. . Monosaccharides can be grouped into aldoses (having an aldehyde group at the end of the chain, e. g. glucose) and ketoses (having a keto group in their chain; e. g. fructose). Both aldoses and ketoses occur in an equilibrium between the open-chain forms and (starting with chain lengths of C4) cyclic forms. These are generated by bond formation between one of the hydroxyl groups of the sugar chain with the carbon of the aldehyde or keto group to form a hemiacetal bond. This leads to saturated five-membered (in furanoses) or six-membered (in pyranoses) heterocyclic rings containing one O as heteroatom

The mucopolysaccharides are a group of inherited lysosomal storage disorders of connective tissue each with distinctive phenotypes and a progressive course due to severe deficiency of an enzyme which usually catalyzes a step in the degradation of glycosaminoglycans. In general, excessive quantities of glycosaminoglycans are excreted in urine which can be analyzed. Specific enzyme analyses must be run for a definitive diagnosis. Mucopolysaccharides analysis is usually performed on urine

A neurochemical is an organic molecule that participates in neural activity. This term is often used to refer to neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin were examples of neurochemicals. o GABA is an example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter. o Dopamine is another example of a neurotransmitter. It plays a key role in the functioning of the limbic system, which is involved in emotional function and control. o Serotonin plays a regulatory role in mood, sleep, and other areas. o Acetylcholine assists motor function.

Neurotransmitters - biochemicals that send nerve impulses from one region of the brain to another - cause a person to feel a given emotionThe brain is a chemical factory that constantly produces neurotransmitters throughout our lives. The raw materials are amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients. In a healthy body, neurotransmitter levels are constantly monitored and kept in check. However, the balance of these biochemicals is subject to many forms of disruption. Because neurotransmitters are comprised of several amino acid building blocks that are supplied through proper nutrition, poor diet-or poor digestion-can rapidly deplete some neurotransmitters, thereby increasing the level of others. In addition, medications as well as illicit drugs may decrease stores, often, resulting in severely elevated neurotransmitter levels which are often evident in urine. . The hormones produced Chemical neurotransmitters relay, amplify and modulate signals between a neuron and another cell. autonomic functions

A solvent is a liquid that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution.The most common solvent in everyday life is water. Most other commonly-used solvents are organic (carbon-containing) chemicals. These are called organic solvents. Biochemicals can be effective replacements for petrochemicals, but their use tends to be more knowledge intensive than the use of petrochemical solvents. Manufacturers must learn how to apply a biochemical cleaning solvent in each individual cleaning situation. Implementation of alternative cleaning methods requires that workers be trained in new cleaning techniques and educated in the handling of unfamiliar solvents

Steroids are lipophilic, low-molecular weight compounds derived from cholesterol that play a number of important physiological roles. The steroid hormones are synthesized mainly by endocrine glands such as the gonads (testis and ovary), the adrenals and (during gestation) by the fetoplacental unit, and are then released into the blood circulation. They act both on peripheral target tissues and the central nervous system (CNS). An important function of the steroid hormones is to coordinate physiological and behavioural responses for specific biological purposes, e.g. reproduction.. Because of their lipophilic properties, free steroid molecules are only sparingly soluble in water. In biological fluids, they are usually found either in a conjugated form, i.e. linked to a hydrophilic moiety (e.g. as sulfate or glucuronide derivatives) or bound to proteins (non-covalent, reversible binding).

The term 'toxin' means the toxic material or product of plants, animals, microorganisms (including, but not limited to bacteria, viruses, fungi, rickettsiae or protozoa), or infectious substances, or a recombinant or synthesized molecule, whatever their origin and method of production, and includes(A) any poisonous substance or biological product that may be engineered as a result of biotechnology produced by a living organism; or(B) any poisonous isomer or biological product, homolog, or derivative of such a substance.

Derivatizing of HPLC samples has become vitally important in the pharmaceutical, chemical and agricultural industries. Derivatizing of reactive analytes for HPLC shows the advantage of:increase in analyte stability and higher selectivity and sensitivity caused by reduced polarity that leads to better chromatographic separation Most useful chiral and non-chiral derivatizing reagents for all HPLC applications were available. Chiral derivatizing agents offers an opportunity for the separation of optical isomers

A disaccharide is a sugar (acarbohydrate) composed of two monosaccharides . Disaccharide is one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide and polysaccharide). There are two basic types of disaccharides: reducing disaccharides , in which the monosaccharide components are bonded by hydroxyl groups; and non-reducing disaccharides , in which the components bond through their anometric center

Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to non-living objects to destroy microorganisms, the process of which is known as disinfection. Disinfectants should generally be distinguished from antibiotics that destroy microorganisms within the body, and from antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Sanitizers are substances that reduce the number of microorganisms to a safe level. The main difference between a sanitizer and a disinfectant is that at a specified use dilution, the disinfectant must have a higher kill capability for pathogenic bacteria compared to that of a sanitizer. Very few disinfectants and sanitizers can sterilise (the complete elimination of all microorganisms), and those that can depend entirely on their mode of application. Bacterial endospores are most resistant to disinfectants, however some viruses and bacteria also possess some tolerance

Industrial biocides are useful to prevent industrial spoilage, in particular that caused by bacteria and fungi. Industrial biocides find application in the preservation of paints, latices, adhesives, leather, wood, metal working fluids and cooling water. One class of compound which can be used as an industrial biocide is based on the isothiazolinone structure. Compositions have been proposed which contain more than one compound which has antimicrobial properties. In general such compositions show an aggregate of the properties of the compounds present in the composition. Typically such compositions contain one compound which exhibits useful antibacterial properties together with a different compound which exhibits useful antifungal properties

Isotopes are any of the different forms of an element each having different atomic mass (mass number). Isotopes of an element have nuclei with the same number of protons (the same atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons. Therefore, isotopes have different mass numbers, which give the total number of nucleons-the number of protons plus neutrons Isotopes such as radioisotopes, which are 'compounds containing radioactive forms of atoms, can be introduced into the body for the purpose of imaging, evaluating organ function, or localizing disease or tumors. Modern uses of isotopes that are useful to us are smoke detectors, irradiation in pest control, agriculture applications (radioactive tracers), medical uses, etc.