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Biohazard is defined as an infectious agent, or part thereof, presenting a real or potential risk to the well-being of man, animals and/or plants, directly through infection or indirectly through disruption of the environment. Biosafety Levels 1 through 4 were established by the Centers for Disease Control & the National Institutes of Health & are combinations of laboratory practices & techniques, safety equipment & facilities. All of these levels are appropriate for the biohazard posed by the agents used and for the laboratory activity. Each biohazard containment facility must be individually designed & constructed, so that it not only contains the hazardous material, but also is easily maintained with minimum potential exposure to maintenance & housekeeping personnel, and has flexibility for future projects. In general one should have safety equipment and facilities appropriate for work done with indigenous or exotic agents with a potential for respiratory transmission which may cause serious and potentially lethal infection. Emphasis is placed on primary & secondary barriers to protect personnel in the contagious area, the community & the environment from exposure to potentially infectious aerosols. A Class I or Class II biological safety cabinet is required for work involving these agents.
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The following procedures are to be adopted inside the biosafety cabinets, wait at least five minutes to allow the BSC to contain aerosols, wear a lab coat, safety glasses and gloves during cleanup, allow the cabinet to run during cleanup, apply disinfectant & allow a minimum of 20 minutes contact time, wipe up spillage with disposable disinfectant-soaked paper towels, wipe the walls, work surface & any equipment in the cabinet with a disinfectant soaked paper towel, discard contaminated disposable materials using appropriate biohazardous waste disposal procedures (autoclave or BFI), place contaminated reusable items in biohazard bags, autoclavable pans with lids orwrap in newspaper before autoclaving & cleanup, expose non-autoclavable materials to disinfectant (20 minute contact time) before removal from the BSC, remove protective clothing used during cleanup & place in a biohazard bag for autoclaving, run the cabinet 10 minutes after cleanup before resuming work or turning the cabinet off. Inside the lab & outside the BSC, clear the area of all personnel & wait at least 15 minutes for aerosol to settle before entering the spill area. Remove any contaminated clothing and place in a biohazard bag to be autoclaved & put a disposable gown, safety glasses & gloves. Initiate the cleanup with a disinfectant.
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Currently, the Bioinformatics Core has two available servers, a Sun Enterprise 450 Unix server with RAID array and dedicated backup. This is used for DNA sequence analysis & assembly, and is essential for some services that are provided by the Bioinformatics Core & a Dell PowerEdge 4400 running Red Hat Linux. A BASE database is installed on this server for supporting microarray data capture and archival. The BASE database format can export microarray data in MIAME format, using the MAGE-ML standard.
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Abstract Bioinformatics, the application of computational tools to the management and analysis of biological data, has stimulated rapid research advances in genomics through the development of data archives such as GenBank & similar progress is just beginning within ecology. One reason for the belated adoption of informatics approaches in ecology is the breadth of ecologically pertinent data (from genes to the biosphere) and its highly heterogeneous nature. The variety of formats, logical structures and sampling methods in ecology create significant challenges. Cultural barriers further impede progress, especially for the creation and adoption of data standards. Informatics frameworks for ecology has been developed from subject-specific data warehouses, to generic data collections that use detailed metadata descriptions and formal ontologies to catalog & cross-reference information. Combining these approaches with automated data integration techniques and scientific workflow systems will maximize the value of data & open new frontiers for research in ecology.
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The distribution and sharing of data & methods is essential not only for distributing the computational demands implied by the large databases, but also to cater to effective interaction between members of multidisciplinary teams. Networking can be performed locally (by LANs) and on a wide scale (Internet). Software engineering skills are needed to build systems & software packages that can be used by scientists, and designing effective user interfaces for these requires human-computer interaction principles to be applied. Web technologies are often used to make bioinformatics data sets and tools available to the scientific community. Many other areas of IT are also used in bioinformatics. Advances in internet technology have largely affected the bioinformatics resources as heterogeneous sources of information. It facilitates the uniform access to the educational, academic & research information sources to bioinformaticians for their research & developmental activities. Access to sequence data is critical, and much of the new sequence data are distributed over the internet. Currently there are at least 400 internet-accessible databases of biological data. The internet also provides a means to distribute software and enables researchers to perform sophisticated analyses on remote servers.
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Many chemical reactions are affected by the acidity of the solution in which they occur. In order for a particular reaction to occur or to occur at an appropriate rate, the pH of the reaction medium must be controlled. Such control is provided by buffer solutions, which are solutions that maintain a particular pH. Biochemical reactions are especially sensitive to pH. Most biological molecules contain groups of atoms that may be charged or neutral depending on pH, and whether these groups are charged or neutral has a significant effect on the biological activity of the molecule. In all multicellular organisms, the fluid within the cell and the fluids surrounding the cells have a characteristic and nearly constant pH. This pH is maintained in a number of ways, and one of the most important is through buffer systems. Two important biological buffer systems are the dihydrogen phosphate system and the carbonic acid system.
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